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Ap Biology Reading Guide Chapter 16 the Molecular Basis of Inheritance Answers

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Ch 16: The Molecular Ground of Inheritance

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  1. one. LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL Biology, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael 50. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter 5. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick The Molecular Basis of Inheritance Chapter xvi
  2. 2. Overview: Life'southward Operating Instructions • In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick introduced an elegant double-helical model for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or Deoxyribonucleic acid • DNA, the substance of inheritance, is the most celebrated molecule of our fourth dimension • Hereditary information is encoded in Dna and reproduced in all cells of the body • This Deoxyribonucleic acid program directs the development of biochemical, anatomical, physiological, and (to some extent) behavioral traits © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  3. 3. Figure xvi.ane
  4. iv. Concept 16.ane: Dna is the genetic material • Early on in the 20th century, the identification of the molecules of inheritance loomed as a major claiming to biologists © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  5. 5. The Search for the Genetic Textile: Scientific Inquiry • When T. H. Morgan's group showed that genes are located on chromosomes, the two components of chromosomes—Dna and protein—became candidates for the genetic fabric • The key factor in determining the genetic fabric was choosing appropriate experimental organisms • The role of Dna in heredity was first discovered by studying bacteria and the viruses that infect them © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  6. half-dozen. Bear witness That Dna Tin can Transform Bacteria • The discovery of the genetic part of Deoxyribonucleic acid began with research past Frederick Griffith in 1928 • Griffith worked with two strains of a bacterium, one pathogenic and one harmless © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  7. 7. • When he mixed heat-killed remains of the pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became pathogenic • He chosen this phenomenon transformation, at present defined as a modify in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of strange Deoxyribonucleic acid © 2011 Pearson Didactics, Inc.
  8. eight. Living S cells (control) Living R cells (control) Oestrus-killed S cells (control) Mixture of heat-killed S cells and living R cells Mouse dies Mouse diesMouse good for you Mouse healthy Living Due south cells EXPERIMENT RESULTS Figure 16.ii
  9. ix. • In 1944, Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod announced that the transforming substance was Deoxyribonucleic acid • Their determination was based on experimental evidence that only DNA worked in transforming harmless bacteria into pathogenic leaner • Many biologists remained skeptical, mainly considering piddling was known about Deoxyribonucleic acid © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  10. ten. Evidence That Viral Dna Can Program Cells • More evidence for DNA as the genetic textile came from studies of viruses that infect bacteria • Such viruses, called bacteriophages (or phages), are widely used in molecular genetics research © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Blitheness: Phage T2 Reproductive Cycle
  11. 11. Effigy 16.3 Phage head Tail sheath Tail cobweb DNA Bacterial cell 100nm
  12. 12. • In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed experiments showing that Deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic material of a phage known as T2 • To make up one's mind this, they designed an experiment showing that only one of the ii components of T2 (DNA or protein) enters an East. coli jail cell during infection • They concluded that the injected DNA of the phage provides the genetic data © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Blitheness: Hershey-Hunt Experiment
  13. 13. Figure xvi.4-1 Bacterial cell Phage Batch ane: Radioactive sulfur (35 S) DNA Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus (32 P) Radioactive DNA EXPERIMENT Radioactive protein
  14. 14. Effigy 16.four-2 Bacterial cell Phage Batch 1: Radioactive sulfur (35 S) Radioactive protein DNA Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus (32 P) Radioactive Deoxyribonucleic acid Empty protein trounce Phage Dna EXPERIMENT
  15. fifteen. Figure 16.4-3 Bacterial cell Phage Batch 1: Radioactive sulfur (35 S) Radioactive protein DNA Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus (32 P) Radioactive DNA Empty protein shell Phage Deoxyribonucleic acid Centrifuge Centrifuge Radioactive decay (phage protein) in liquid Pellet (bacterial cells and contents) Pellet Radioactive decay (phage DNA) in pellet EXPERIMENT
  16. 16. Additional Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Fabric • It was known that DNA is a polymer of nucleotides, each consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group • In 1950, Erwin Chargaff reported that Dna limerick varies from one species to the next • This bear witness of diversity made DNA a more apparent candidate for the genetic fabric © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Dna and RNA Construction
  17. 17. • Two findings became known as Chargaff's rules – The base composition of Dna varies between species – In any species the number of A and T bases are equal and the number of K and C bases are equal • The basis for these rules was not understood until the discovery of the double helix © 2011 Pearson Instruction, Inc.
  18. 18. Figure 16.5 Sugar–phosphate backbone Nitrogenous bases Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (Thou) Nitrogenous base of operations Phosphate Deoxyribonucleic acid nucleotide Sugar (deoxyribose) 3′ end 5′ end
  19. 19. Building a Structural Model of Dna: Scientific Inquiry • After Dna was accustomed as the genetic cloth, the challenge was to determine how its structure accounts for its role in heredity • Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin were using a technique chosen X-ray crystallography to study molecular structure • Franklin produced a picture of the DNA molecule using this technique © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  20. 20. Figure 16.6 (a) Rosalind Franklin (b) Franklin's X-ray diffraction photograph of Dna
  21. 21. Effigy xvi.6a (a) Rosalind Franklin
  22. 22. Figure 16.6b (b) Franklin's X-ray diffraction photo of Deoxyribonucleic acid
  23. 23. • Franklin's X-ray crystallographic images of Dna enabled Watson to deduce that DNA was helical • The X-ray images also enabled Watson to deduce the width of the helix and the spacing of the nitrogenous bases • The blueprint in the photograph suggested that the DNA molecule was made upward of two strands, forming a double helix © 2011 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Animation: Deoxyribonucleic acid Double Helix
  24. 24. Figure 16.7 3.4 nm i nm 0.34 nm Hydrogen bond (a) Key features of DNA structure Space-filling model (c)(b) Partial chemical construction 3′ end 5′ stop three′ stop 5′ terminate T T A A Thousand One thousand C C C C C C C C C C C G G One thousand G G Grand G Chiliad One thousand T T T T T T A A A A A A
  25. 25. 3.iv nm ane nm 0.34 nm Hydrogen bail (a) Central features of Deoxyribonucleic acid structure (b) Partial chemical structure 3′ end 5′ stop 3′ end 5′ end T T A A G G C C C C C C C C C C C Chiliad M M G One thousand G K G Grand T T T T T T A A A A A A Figure 16.7a
  26. 26. Figure 16.7b (c) Space-filling model
  27. 27. • Watson and Crick congenital models of a double helix to adapt to the Ten-rays and chemistry of Dna • Franklin had concluded that there were ii outer sugar-phosphate backbones, with the nitrogenous bases paired in the molecule'south interior • Watson built a model in which the backbones were antiparallel (their subunits run in opposite directions) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  28. 28. • At showtime, Watson and Crick thought the bases paired like with like (A with A, and so on), only such pairings did not result in a uniform width • Instead, pairing a purine with a pyrimidine resulted in a compatible width consistent with the X-ray data © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  29. 29. Figure xvi.UN01 Purine + purine: as well broad Pyrimidine + pyrimidine: besides narrow Purine + pyrimidine: width consistent with X-ray data
  30. 30. • Watson and Crick reasoned that the pairing was more specific, dictated by the base structures • They determined that adenine (A) paired only with thymine (T), and guanine (1000) paired only with cytosine (C) • The Watson-Crick model explains Chargaff's rules: in whatever organism the amount of A = T, and the amount of G = C © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  31. 31. Figure 16.eight Sugar Sugar Sugar Sugar Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)
  32. 32. Concept 16.2: Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair • The relationship betwixt construction and function is manifest in the double helix • Watson and Crick noted that the specific base pairing suggested a possible copying mechanism for genetic material © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  33. 33. The Bones Principle: Base of operations Pairing to a Template Strand • Since the 2 strands of DNA are complementary, each strand acts as a template for building a new strand in replication • In DNA replication, the parent molecule unwinds, and two new daughter strands are built based on base-pairing rules © 2011 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Blitheness: Deoxyribonucleic acid Replication Overview
  34. 34. Figure 16.ix-1 (a) Parent molecule A A A T T T C C Grand G
  35. 35. Effigy 16.ix-2 (a) Parent molecule (b) Separation of strands A A A A A A T T T T T T C C C C G K G 1000
  36. 36. Figure 16.9-three (a) Parent molecule (b) Separation of strands (c)"Daughter" Dna molecules, each consisting of 1 parental strand and one new strand A A A A A A A A A A A A T T T T T T T T T T T T C C C C C C C C G G G G Thousand K Thou G
  37. 37. • Watson and Crick'south semiconservative model of replication predicts that when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecule will have 1 old strand (derived or "conserved" from the parent molecule) and one newly made strand • Competing models were the conservative model (the 2 parent strands rejoin) and the dispersive model (each strand is a mix of old and new) © 2011 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.
  38. 38. Figure sixteen.10 (a) Conservative model (b) Semiconservative model (c) Dispersive model Parent cell First replication 2nd replication
  39. 39. • Experiments by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl supported the semiconservative model • They labeled the nucleotides of the old strands with a heavy isotope of nitrogen, while any new nucleotides were labeled with a lighter isotope © 2011 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.
  40. twoscore. • The first replication produced a band of hybrid DNA, eliminating the conservative model • A 2nd replication produced both lite and hybrid DNA, eliminating the dispersive model and supporting the semiconservative model © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  41. 41. Figure 16.11 Bacteria cultured in medium with fifteen N (heavy isotope) Bacteria transferred to medium with 14 N (lighter isotope) Dna sample centrifuged later on first replication Dna sample centrifuged after 2nd replication Less dense More dense Predictions: Outset replication 2nd replication Conservative model Semiconservative model Dispersive model 21 three 4 EXPERIMENT RESULTS Decision
  42. 42. Figure xvi.11a Bacteria cultured in medium with 15 N (heavy isotope) Bacteria transferred to medium with 14 Northward (lighter isotope) DNA sample centrifuged after commencement replication DNA sample centrifuged afterward second replication Less dumbo More dense 21 3 4 EXPERIMENT RESULTS
  43. 43. Figure 16.11b Predictions: First replication 2nd replication Bourgeois model Semiconservative model Dispersive model CONCLUSION
  44. 44. Deoxyribonucleic acid Replication: A Closer Look • The copying of DNA is remarkable in its speed and accurateness • More than than a dozen enzymes and other proteins participate in DNA replication © 2011 Pearson Didactics, Inc.
  45. 45. Getting Started • Replication begins at particular sites called origins of replication, where the two Deoxyribonucleic acid strands are separated, opening up a replication "bubble" • A eukaryotic chromosome may accept hundreds or even thousands of origins of replication • Replication gain in both directions from each origin, until the entire molecule is copied © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Origins of Replication
  46. 46. Effigy 16.12 (a) Origin of replication in an E. coli prison cell (b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic cell Origin of replication Parental (template) strand Double- stranded Dna molecule Daughter (new) strand Replication fork Replication bubble Two daughter Dna molecules Origin of replication Double-stranded DNA molecule Parental (template) strand Daughter (new) strand Chimera Replication fork Two daughter DNA molecules 0.5µm 0.25µm
  47. 47. Figure sixteen.12a (a) Origin of replication in an E. coli cell Origin of replication Parental (template) strand Double- stranded Dna molecule Daughter (new) strand Replication fork Replication chimera Two daughter Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules 0.v µm
  48. 48. Figure 16.12b (b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic cell Origin of replication Double-stranded Dna molecule Parental (template) strand Girl (new) strand Bubble Replication fork Ii daughter Dna molecules 0.25 µm
  49. 49. Figure sixteen.12c 0.5µm
  50. 50. Figure sixteen.12d 0.25µm
  51. 51. • At the finish of each replication bubble is a replication fork, a Y-shaped region where new DNA strands are elongating • Helicases are enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks • Unmarried-strand binding proteins bind to and stabilize single-stranded Deoxyribonucleic acid • Topoisomerase corrects "overwinding" ahead of replication forks past breaking, swiveling, and rejoining Dna strands © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  52. 52. Effigy 16.13 Topoisomerase Primase RNA primer Helicase Single-strand binding proteins v′ three′ five′ 5′3′ three′
  53. 53. • Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a polynucleotide; they can only add nucleotides to the 3′ end • The initial nucleotide strand is a short RNA primer © 2011 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.
  54. 54. • An enzyme called primase can commencement an RNA concatenation from scratch and adds RNA nucleotides 1 at a time using the parental Deoxyribonucleic acid as a template • The primer is short (v–ten nucleotides long), and the 3′ stop serves as the starting point for the new Dna strand © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  55. 55. Synthesizing a New DNA Strand • Enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyze the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork • Nearly DNA polymerases require a primer and a DNA template strand • The charge per unit of elongation is nigh 500 nucleotides per second in bacteria and 50 per second in human cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  56. 56. • Each nucleotide that is added to a growing Dna strand is a nucleoside triphosphate • dATP supplies adenine to DNA and is similar to the ATP of energy metabolism • The difference is in their sugars: dATP has deoxyribose while ATP has ribose • As each monomer of dATP joins the DNA strand, it loses two phosphate groups as a molecule of pyrophosphate © 2011 Pearson Didactics, Inc.
  57. 57. Figure 16.14 New strand Template strand Sugar Phosphate Base Nucleoside triphosphate Dna polymerase Pyrophosphate five′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 3′ 3′ iii′ 3′ OH OH OH P P i 2 P i P P P A A A A T T T T C C C C C C M G G 1000
  58. 58. Antiparallel Elongation • The antiparallel structure of the double helix affects replication • DNA polymerases add together nucleotides only to the free three′ end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA strand tin can elongate only in the 5′ to 3′ direction © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  59. 59. • Along one template strand of Deoxyribonucleic acid, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a leading strand continuously, moving toward the replication fork © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Blitheness: Leading Strand
  60. threescore. Figure 16.15 Leading strand Lagging strand Overview Origin of replication Lagging strand Leading strand Primer Overall directions of replication Origin of replication RNA primer Sliding clamp Dna political leader Three Parental DNA iii′ v′ 5′ three′ 3′ 5′ three′ 5′ 3′ 5′ 3′ five′
  61. 61. Figure xvi.15a Leading strand Lagging strand Overview Origin of replication Lagging strand Leading strand Primer Overall directions of replication
  62. 62. Origin of replication RNA primer Sliding clamp DNA pol III Parental DNA three′ 5′ 5′ 3′ iii′ 5′ iii′ v′ three′ 5′ iii′ five′ Figure xvi.15b
  63. 63. • To elongate the other new strand, called the lagging strand, DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication fork • The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments chosen Okazaki fragments, which are joined together by Deoxyribonucleic acid ligase © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Blitheness: Lagging Strand
  64. 64. Origin of replication Overview Leading strand Leading strand Lagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication Template strand RNA primer for fragment ane Okazaki fragment one RNA primer for fragment 2 Okazaki fragment 2 Overall management of replication 3′ three′ 3′ iii′ three′ three′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ iii′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 5′ five′ 5′ v′ five′5′ five′ 5′ 5′ 2 two 2 1 1 1 1 ane 2 ane Figure sixteen.16
  65. 65. Effigy xvi.16a Origin of replication Overview Leading strand Leading strand Lagging strand Lagging strand Overall directions of replication 1 2
  66. 66. Figure xvi.16b-1 Template strand three′ iii′5′ v′
  67. 67. Figure 16.16b-2 Template strand RNA primer for fragment ane 3′ 3′ three′ 3′ 5′ 5′ v′ 5′ one
  68. 68. Figure 16.16b-3 Template strand RNA primer for fragment i Okazaki fragment 1 3′ 3′ three′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 5′ v′ 5′ five′ v′ 5′ 1 ane
  69. 69. Figure 16.16b-4 Template strand RNA primer for fragment one Okazaki fragment 1 RNA primer for fragment two Okazaki fragment 2 3′ 3′ three′ 3′ 3′ 3′ iii′ three′ 5′ five′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 5′ five′ two one 1 1
  70. 70. Effigy xvi.16b-v Template strand RNA primer for fragment 1 Okazaki fragment i RNA primer for fragment two Okazaki fragment two 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ iii′ iii′ 3′ iii′ 5′ 5′ 5′ v′ 5′ 5′ five′ v′ v′ 5′5′ 2 two 1 1 1 1
  71. 71. Figure xvi.16b-half-dozen Template strand RNA primer for fragment i Okazaki fragment ane RNA primer for fragment 2 Okazaki fragment 2 Overall direction of replication 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 3′ three′ 3′ iii′ 3′ 3′ 5′ 5′ 5′ v′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 5′5′ 5′ 2 ii 2 1 1 one 1 1
  72. 72. Figure xvi.17 Overview Leading strand Origin of replication Lagging strand Leading strandLagging strand Overall directions of replicationLeading strand DNA politico III Dna pol III Lagging strand DNA pol I Deoxyribonucleic acid ligase Primer Primase Parental Deoxyribonucleic acid v′ five′ 5′ 5′ 5′ 3′ 3′ three′ iii′ 3′3 2 1 four
  73. 73. Effigy 16.17a Overview Leading strand Origin of replication Lagging strand Leading strandLagging strand Overall directions of replication Leading strand DNA pol III Primer Primase Parental DNA 5′ five′3′ 3′ iii′
  74. 74. Overview Leading strand Origin of replication Lagging strand Leading strandLagging strand Overall directions of replicationLeading strand Primer DNA political leader Three Dna pol I Lagging strand Deoxyribonucleic acid ligase v′ five′ five′ three′ 3′ 3′ iii 4 ii one Figure 16.17b
  75. 75. The Deoxyribonucleic acid Replication Complex • The proteins that participate in Dna replication form a large complex, a "DNA replication machine" • The Dna replication car may be stationary during the replication process • Recent studies back up a model in which Dna polymerase molecules "reel in" parental Deoxyribonucleic acid and "extrude" newly fabricated daughter Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Dna Replication Review
  76. 76. Figure 16.xviii Parental Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA pol 3 Leading strand Connecting protein Helicase Lagging strandDNA pol Three Lagging strand template 5′ 5′ 5′ five′ 5′ five′ iii′ 3′ iii′ three′ 3′ 3′
  77. 77. Proofreading and Repairing Dna • Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides • In mismatch repair of Dna, repair enzymes correct errors in base of operations pairing • DNA can exist damaged by exposure to harmful chemical or concrete agents such as cigarette smoke and X-rays; information technology tin can too undergo spontaneous changes • In nucleotide excision repair, a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA © 2011 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.
  78. 78. Figure sixteen.19 Nuclease DNA polymerase DNA ligase 5′ 5′ 5′ five′ 5′ 5′ 5′ five′ 3′ 3′ 3′ three′ iii′ three′ 3′ three′
  79. 79. Evolutionary Significance of Altered DNA Nucleotides • Error rate after proofreading repair is low merely not zero • Sequence changes may become permanent and can be passed on to the side by side generation • These changes (mutations) are the source of the genetic variation upon which natural selection operates © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  80. 80. Replicating the Ends of Deoxyribonucleic acid Molecules • Limitations of DNA polymerase create problems for the linear Deoxyribonucleic acid of eukaryotic chromosomes • The usual replication machinery provides no way to complete the 5′ ends, so repeated rounds of replication produce shorter DNA molecules with uneven ends • This is not a trouble for prokaryotes, most of which take circular chromosomes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  81. 81. Figure 16.twenty Ends of parental DNA strands Leading strand Lagging strand Final fragment Next-to-concluding fragment Lagging strand RNA primer Parental strand Removal of primers and replacement with DNA where a 3′ end is available 2d round of replication Further rounds of replication New leading strand New lagging strand Shorter and shorter daughter molecules three′ three′ 3′ 3′ 3′ 5′ v′ five′ 5′ 5′
  82. 82. Effigy 16.20a Ends of parental Dna strands Leading strand Lagging strand Last fragment Side by side-to-terminal fragment Lagging strand RNA primer Parental strand Removal of primers and replacement with Deoxyribonucleic acid where a 3′ stop is available three′ three′ 3′ v′ five′ 5′
  83. 83. Figure 16.20b Second circular of replication Further rounds of replication New leading strand New lagging strand Shorter and shorter girl molecules 3′ 3′ 3′ 5′ v′ v′
  84. 84. • Eukaryotic chromosomal Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules accept special nucleotide sequences at their ends called telomeres • Telomeres do non prevent the shortening of DNA molecules, but they practise postpone the erosion of genes near the ends of DNA molecules • Information technology has been proposed that the shortening of telomeres is connected to aging © 2011 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.
  85. 85. Figure xvi.21 1 µm
  86. 86. • If chromosomes of germ cells became shorter in every cell cycle, essential genes would eventually be missing from the gametes they produce • An enzyme called telomerase catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  87. 87. • The shortening of telomeres might protect cells from malignant growth by limiting the number of jail cell divisions • In that location is prove of telomerase action in cancer cells, which may allow cancer cells to persist © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  88. 88. Concept sixteen.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins • The bacterial chromosome is a double-stranded, circular DNA molecule associated with a pocket-size amount of protein • Eukaryotic chromosomes have linear DNA molecules associated with a large amount of protein • In a bacterium, the DNA is "supercoiled" and constitute in a region of the cell called the nucleoid © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  89. 89. • Chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein, is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells • Chromosomes fit into the nucleus through an elaborate, multilevel system of packing © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Deoxyribonucleic acid Packing
  90. 90. Figure 16.22a Deoxyribonucleic acid double helix (2 nm in diameter) DNA, the double helix Nucleosome (ten nm in diameter) Histones Histones Histone tail H1 Nucleosomes, or "beads on a string" (ten-nm fiber)
  91. 91. Figure xvi.22b xxx-nm fiber xxx-nm cobweb Loops Scaffold 300-nm cobweb Chromatid (700 nm) Replicated chromosome (1,400 nm) Looped domains (300-nm fiber) Metaphase chromosome
  92. 92. Effigy 16.22c Dna double helix (2 nm in diameter)
  93. 93. Effigy 16.22d Nucleosome (10 nm in diameter)
  94. 94. Figure 16.22e 30-nm fiber
  95. 95. Figure xvi.22f Loops Scaffold
  96. 96. Effigy 16.22g Chromatid (700 nm)
  97. 97. • Chromatin undergoes changes in packing during the cell bicycle • At interphase, some chromatin is organized into a 10-nm fiber, but much is compacted into a 30-nm fiber, through folding and looping • Though interphase chromosomes are not highly condensed, they still occupy specific restricted regions in the nucleus © 2011 Pearson Instruction, Inc.
  98. 98. Effigy 16.23 5µm
  99. 99. Figure xvi.23a
  100. 100. Figure sixteen.23b
  101. 101. Figure 16.23c 5µm
  102. 102. • Virtually chromatin is loosely packed in the nucleus during interphase and condenses prior to mitosis • Loosely packed chromatin is called euchromatin • During interphase a few regions of chromatin (centromeres and telomeres) are highly condensed into heterochromatin • Dense packing of the heterochromatin makes it difficult for the jail cell to limited genetic information coded in these regions © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  103. 103. • Histones can undergo chemical modifications that result in changes in chromatin organisation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  104. 104. Figure 16.UN02 Carbohydrate-phosphate backbone Nitrogenous bases Hydrogen bond G G G G C C C C A A A A T T T T
  105. 105. Effigy sixteen.UN03 Dna politician Three synthesizes leading strand continuously Parental DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid politico 3 starts Dna synthesis at three′ end of primer, continues in 5′ → 3′ direction Origin of replication Helicase Primase synthesizes a short RNA primer Dna political leader I replaces the RNA primer with Dna nucleotides iii′ three′ 3′ 5′ five′ 5′ 5′ Lagging strand synthesized in short Okazaki fragments, later joined by DNA ligase
  106. 106. Figure 16.UN04
  107. 107. Figure 16.UN05
  108. 108. Figure 16.UN06
  109. 109. Figure 16.UN07

  • Effigy 16.1 How was the structure of Deoxyribonucleic acid adamant?
  • Figure sixteen.two Inquiry: Can a genetic trait be transferred between different bacterial strains?
  • Figure 16.3 Viruses infecting a bacterial cell.
  • Figure 16.4 Inquiry: Is protein or DNA the genetic fabric of phage T2?
  • Figure 16.4 Inquiry: Is poly peptide or Deoxyribonucleic acid the genetic material of phage T2?
  • Effigy 16.4 Inquiry: Is protein or Dna the genetic material of phage T2?
  • Figure 16.v The construction of a DNA strand.
  • Effigy 16.6 Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photo of Dna.
  • Figure sixteen.6 Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photo of Deoxyribonucleic acid.
  • Effigy 16.6 Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray diffraction photo of DNA.
  • Figure sixteen.7 The double helix.
  • Effigy 16.vii The double helix.
  • Effigy 16.7 The double helix.
  • Figure 16.UN01 In-text figure, p. 310
  • Effigy 16.8 Base pairing in Dna.
  • Figure xvi.9 A model for DNA replication: the basic concept.
  • Effigy 16.ix A model for DNA replication: the basic concept.
  • Figure 16.9 A model for Deoxyribonucleic acid replication: the bones concept.
  • Figure sixteen.x Three alternative models of Deoxyribonucleic acid replication.
  • Effigy 16.11 Research: Does Dna replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model?
  • Effigy sixteen.11 Inquiry: Does DNA replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model?
  • Figure xvi.11 Enquiry: Does Dna replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model?
  • Figure sixteen.12 Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes.
  • Effigy 16.12 Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes.
  • Figure 16.12 Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes.
  • Figure 16.12 Origins of replication in East. coli and eukaryotes.
  • Figure xvi.12 Origins of replication in E. coli and eukaryotes.
  • Figure 16.thirteen Some of the proteins involved in the initiation of DNA replication.
  • Effigy 16.xiv Incorporation of a nucleotide into a Dna strand.
  • Figure xvi.15 Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication.
  • Effigy xvi.15 Synthesis of the leading strand during DNA replication.
  • Figure 16.xv Synthesis of the leading strand during Deoxyribonucleic acid replication.
  • Figure sixteen.16 Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Figure 16.sixteen Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Figure 16.16 Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Effigy 16.16 Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Figure 16.16 Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Figure 16.16 Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Figure 16.16 Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Effigy sixteen.xvi Synthesis of the lagging strand.
  • Effigy 16.17 A summary of bacterial DNA replication.
  • Figure xvi.17 A summary of bacterial DNA replication.
  • Figure 16.17 A summary of bacterial Deoxyribonucleic acid replication.
  • Figure sixteen.18 A current model of the Deoxyribonucleic acid replication complex.
  • Effigy 16.xix Nucleotide excision repair of DNA impairment.
  • Figure 16.20 Shortening of the ends of linear DNA molecules.
  • Effigy sixteen.xx Shortening of the ends of linear DNA molecules.
  • Figure 16.20 Shortening of the ends of linear Deoxyribonucleic acid molecules.
  • Effigy xvi.21 Telomeres.
  • For the Prison cell Biology Video Cartoon and Stick Model of a Nucleosomal Particle, become to Animation and Video Files.
  • Effigy 16.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Effigy 16.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Figure 16.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Figure sixteen.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Figure 16.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Figure sixteen.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Figure 16.22 Exploring: Chromatin Packing in a Eukaryotic Chromosome
  • Effigy xvi.23 Touch on: Painting Chromosomes
  • Figure 16.23 Bear upon: Painting Chromosomes
  • Effigy 16.23 Impact: Painting Chromosomes
  • Figure 16.23 Bear on: Painting Chromosomes
  • Figure 16.UN02 Summary figure, Concept xvi.1
  • Figure 16.UN03 Summary effigy, Concept 16.1 2
  • Figure 16.UN04 Test Your Understanding, question 10
  • Effigy 16.UN05 Test Your Understanding, question 12
  • Figure 16.UN06 Appendix A: reply to Figure 16.17 legend question
  • Figure sixteen.UN07 Appendix A: answer to Test Your Understanding, question 12

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